T. J. Clark’s Catalyzed
Fish Oil
Information
from National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health
(NIH)
Fish
oil contains both docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA), while some nuts (English walnuts) and vegetable oils (canola,
soybean, flaxseed/linseed, olive) contain alpha-linolenic acid (ALA).
There
is evidence from multiple studies supporting intake of recommended amounts of
DHA and EPA in the form of dietary fish or fish oil supplements lowers
triglycerides, reduces the risk of death, heart attack, dangerous abnormal heart
rhythms, and strokes in people with known cardiovascular disease, slows the
buildup of atherosclerotic plaques ("hardening of the arteries"), and
lowers blood pressure slightly. However, high doses may have harmful effects,
such as an increased risk of bleeding. Although similar benefits are proposed
for alpha-linolenic acid, scientific evidence is less compelling, and beneficial
effects may be less pronounced.
Some
species of fish carry a higher risk of environmental contamination, such as with
methylmercury.
Synonyms
α-linolenic
acid (ALA, C18:3n-3), alpha-linolenic acid, cod liver oil, coldwater fish,
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6n-3), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5n-3),
fish oil fatty acids, fish body oil, fish extract, fish liver oil, halibut oil,
long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, mackerel oil, marine oil, menhaden oil,
n-3 fatty acids, n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, omega fatty acids, omega-3
oils, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), salmon oil, shark liver oil, w-3 fatty
acids.
Note:
Should not be confused with omega-6 fatty acids.
Evidence
These
uses have been tested in humans or animals. Safety and effectiveness have not
always been proven. Some of these conditions are potentially serious, and should
be evaluated by a qualified healthcare provider.
Uses
based on scientific evidence
|
Grade*
|
High
blood pressure
Multiple
human trials report small reductions in blood pressure with intake of
omega-3 fatty acid. DHA may have greater benefits than EPA. However,
high intakes of omega-3 fatty acids per day may be necessary to obtain
clinically relevant effects, and at this dose level, there is an
increased risk of bleeding. Therefore, a qualified healthcare provider
should be consulted prior to starting treatment with supplements.
|
A
|
Hypertriglyceridemia
(fish oil / EPA plus DHA)
There
is strong scientific evidence from human trials that omega-3 fatty
acids from fish or fish oil supplements (EPA + DHA) significantly
reduce blood triglyceride levels. Benefits appear to be
dose-dependent. Fish oil supplements also appear to cause small
improvements in high-density lipoprotein ("good
cholesterol"); however, increases (worsening) in low-density
lipoprotein levels (LDL/"bad cholesterol") are also
observed.It is not clear if alpha-linolenic acid significantly affects
triglyceride levels, and there is conflicting evidence in this
area.The American Heart Association has published recommendations for
EPA + DHA. Because of the risk of bleeding from omega-3 fatty acids, a
qualified healthcare provider should be consulted prior to starting
treatment with supplements.There is growing evidence that reducing
C-Reactive Protein (CRP) is beneficial towards favorable
cardiovascular outcomes, although additional research is pending in
this area. The data on fish oils and CRP levels is mixed.
|
A
|
Secondary
cardiovascular disease prevention (fish oil / EPA plus DHA)
Several
well-conducted randomized controlled trials report that in people with
a history of heart attack, regular consumption of oily fish or fish
oil/omega-3 supplements reduces the risk of non-fatal heart attack,
fatal heart attack, sudden death, and all-cause mortality (death due
to any cause). Most patients in these studies were also using
conventional heart drugs, suggesting that the benefits of fish oils
may add to the effects of other therapies.
|
A
|
Primary
cardiovascular disease prevention (fish intake)
Several
large studies of populations ("epidemiologic" studies)
report a significantly lower rate of death from heart disease in men
and women who regularly eat fish. Other epidemiologic research reports
no such benefits. It is not clear if reported benefits only occur in
certain groups of people, such as those at risk of developing heart
disease. Overall, the evidence suggests benefits of regular
consumption of fish oil. However, well-designed randomized controlled
trials which classify people by their risk of developing heart disease
are necessary before a firm conclusion can be drawn.
|
B
|
Protection
from cyclosporine toxicity in organ transplant patients
There
are multiple studies of heart transplant and kidney transplant
patients taking cyclosporine (Neoral®), who were administered fish
oil supplements. The majority of trials report improvements in kidney
function, and less high blood pressure compared to patients not taking
fish oil. Although several recent studies report no benefits on kidney
function, the weight of scientific evidence favors the beneficial
effects of fish oil.
|
B
|
Rheumatoid
arthritis (fish oil)
Multiple
randomized controlled trials report improvements in morning stiffness
and joint tenderness with the regular intake of fish oil supplements
for up to three months. Benefits have been reported as additive with
anti-inflammatory medications such as NSAIDs (like ibuprofen or
aspirin). However, because of weaknesses in study designs and
reporting, better research is necessary before a strong favorable
recommendation can be made. Effects beyond three months of treatment
have not been well evaluated.
|
B
|
Angina
pectoris
Preliminary
studies report reductions in angina associated with fish oil intake.
Better research is necessary before a firm conclusion can be drawn.
|
C
|
Asthma
Several
studies in this area do not provide enough reliable evidence to form a
clear conclusion, with some studies reporting no effects, and others
finding benefits. Because most studies have been small without clear
descriptions of design or results, the results cannot be considered
conclusive.
|
C
|
Atherosclerosis
Some
research reports that regular intake of fish or fish oil supplements
reduces the risk of developing atherosclerotic plaques in the arteries
of the heart, while other research reports no effects. Additional
evidence is necessary before a firm conclusion can be drawn in this
area.
|
C
|
Bipolar
disorder
Several
studies in this area do not provide enough reliable evidence to form a
clear conclusion.
|
C
|
Cancer
prevention
Several
population (epidemiologic) studies report that dietary omega-3 fatty
acids or fish oil may reduce the risk of developing breast, colon, or
prostate cancer. Randomized controlled trials are necessary before a
clear conclusion can be drawn.
|
C
|
Cardiac
arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms)
There
is promising evidence that omega-3 fatty acids may decrease the risk
of cardiac arrhythmias. This is one proposed mechanism behind the
reduced number of heart attacks in people who regularly ingest fish
oil or EPA + DHA. Additional research is needed in this area
specifically before a firm conclusion can be reached.
|
C
|
Colon
cancer
Omega-3
fatty acids are commonly taken by cancer patients. Although
preliminary studies report that growth of colon cancer cells may be
reduced by taking fish oil, effects on survival or remission have not
been measured adequately.
|
C
|
Crohn's
disease
It
has been suggested that effects of omega-3 fatty acids on inflammation
may be beneficial in patients with Crohn's disease when added to
standard therapy, and several studies have been conducted in this
area. Results are conflicting, and no clear conclusion can be drawn at
this time.
|
C
|
Cystic
fibrosis
A
small amount of research in this area does not provide enough reliable
evidence to form a clear conclusion.
|
C
|
Dementia
Well-designed
clinical trials are needed before omega-3 fatty acids can be
recommended for the prevention of cognitive impairment or dementia.
|
C
|
Depression
Several
studies on the use of omega 3 fatty acids in depression, including
positive results in postpartum depression, do not provide enough
reliable evidence to form a clear conclusion or replace standard
treatments. However, based on one recent study, omega-3 fatty acids
may have therapeutic benefits in childhood depression. Promising
initial evidence requires confirmation with larger, well-designed
trials.
|
C
|
Dysmenorrhea
(painful menstruation)
There
is preliminary evidence suggesting possible benefits of fish
oil/omega-3 fatty acids in patients with dysmenorrhea. Additional
research is necessary before a firm conclusion can be reached.
|
C
|
Eczema
Several
studies of EPA for eczema do not provide enough reliable evidence to
form a clear conclusion.
|
C
|
IgA
nephropathy
There
are conflicting results from several trials in this area.
|
C
|
Infant
eye / brain development
Well-designed
research is necessary before a clear conclusion can be reached.
|
C
|
Lupus
erythematosus
There
is not enough reliable evidence to form a clear conclusion in this
area.
|
C
|
Nephrotic
syndrome
There
is not enough reliable evidence to form a clear conclusion in this
area.
|
C
|
Preeclampsia
Several
studies of fish oil do not provide enough reliable evidence to form a
clear conclusion in this area.
|
C
|
Prevention
of graft failure after heart bypass surgery
There
is limited study of the use of fish oils in patients after undergoing
coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). Additional evidence is
necessary before a firm conclusion can be drawn in this area.
|
C
|
Prevention
of restenosis after coronary angioplasty (PTCA)
Several
randomized controlled trials have evaluated whether omega-3 fatty acid
intake reduces blockage of arteries in the heart following balloon
angioplasty (percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty/PTCA). The
evidence in this area remains inconclusive.
|
C
|
Primary
cardiovascular disease prevention (α-linolenic acid [ALA])
Additional
research is necessary before a conclusion can be drawn in this area.
|
C
|
Psoriasis
Several
studies in this area do not provide enough reliable evidence to form a
clear conclusion.
|
C
|
Schizophrenia
There
is promising preliminary evidence from several randomized controlled
trials in this area. Additional research is necessary before a firm
conclusion can be reached.
|
C
|
Secondary
cardiovascular disease prevention (α-linolenic acid [ALA])
Several
randomized controlled trials have examined the effects of alpha-linolenic
acid in people with a history of heart attack. Although some studies
suggest benefits, others do not. Additional research is necessary
before a conclusion can be drawn in this area.
|
C
|
Stroke
prevention
Several
large studies of populations ("epidemiologic" studies) have
examined the effects of omega-3 fatty acid intake on stroke risk. Some
studies suggest benefits, while others do not. Effects are likely on
ischemic or thrombotic stroke risk, and very large intakes of omega-3
fatty acids ("Eskimo" amounts) may actually increase the
risk of hemorrhagic (bleeding) stroke. At this time, it is unclear if
there are benefits in people with or without a history of stroke, or
if effects of fish oil are comparable to other treatment strategies.
|
C
|
Ulcerative
colitis
It
has been suggested that effects of omega-3 fatty acids on inflammation
may be beneficial in patients with ulcerative colitis when added to
standard therapy, and several studies have been conducted in this
area. Better research is necessary before a clear conclusion can be
drawn.
|
C
|
Appetite
/ weight loss in cancer patients
There
is preliminary evidence that fish oil supplementation does not improve
appetite or prevent weight loss in cancer patients. Further study is
warranted.
|
D
|
Diabetes
The
available scientific evidence suggests that there are no significant
long-term effects of fish oil in patients with diabetes. Most studies
in this area are not well designed.
|
D
|
Hypercholesterolemia
Although
fish oil is able to reduce triglycerides, beneficial effects on blood
cholesterol levels have not been demonstrated. Fish oil supplements
appear to cause small improvements in high-density lipoprotein
("good cholesterol"); however, increases (worsening) in
low-density lipoprotein levels ("bad cholesterol") are also
observed. Fish oil does not appear to affect C-reactive protein (CRP)
levels.
|
D
|
Transplant
rejection prevention (kidney and heart)
There
are multiple studies of heart transplant and kidney transplant
patients taking cyclosporine (Neoral®), who were administered fish
oil supplements. The majority of trials report improvements in kidney
function (glomerular filtration rate, serum creatinine), and less
hypertension (high blood pressure) compared to patients not taking
fish oil. However, several recent studies report no benefits on kidney
function, and no changes have been found in rates of rejection or
graft survival.
|
D
|
*Key
to grades
A: Strong scientific evidence for this use;
B: Good scientific evidence for this use;
C: Unclear scientific evidence for this use;
D: Fair scientific evidence against this use;
F: Strong scientific evidence against this use.
Uses
based on tradition or theory
The
below uses are based on tradition or scientific theories. They often have not
been thoroughly tested in humans, and safety and effectiveness have not always
been proven. Some of these conditions are potentially serious, and should be
evaluated by a qualified healthcare provider.
Acute
myocardial infarction (heart attack), acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS),
age related macular degeneration, aggressive behavior, agoraphobia, AIDS,
allergies, Alzheimer's disease, anticoagulation, antiphospholipid syndrome,
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anthracycline-induced cardiac
toxicity, bacterial infections, breast cysts, breast tenderness, chronic fatigue
syndrome (postviral fatigue syndrome), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,
cirrhosis, common cold, congestive heart failure, critical illness, deficiency
(omega-3 fatty acid), dermatomyositis, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic
neuropathy, dyslexia, dyspraxia, endocrine disorders (glycogen storage
diseases), exercise performance enhancement, fibromyalgia, gallstones,
gingivitis, glaucoma, glomerulonephritis, gout, hay fever, headache, hepatorenal
syndrome, hypoxia, ichthyosis (skin disorder), immunosuppression, inflammatory
conditions (Behcet's syndrome), joint problems (cartilage repair), kidney
disease prevention, kidney stones, leprosy, leukemia, malaria, male infertility,
mastalgia (breast pain), memory enhancement, menopausal symptoms, menstrual
cramps, methotrexate toxicity, multiple sclerosis, myopathy, nephritis
(autoimmune), neuropathy, night vision enhancement, obesity, osteoarthritis,
osteoporosis, otitis media (ear infection), panic disorder, peripheral vascular
disease, pregnancy nutritional supplement, premature birth prevention,
premenstrual syndrome, prostate cancer prevention, protection from isotretinoin
drug toxicity, psychological disorders (borderline personality disorder),
Raynaud's phenomenon, Refsum's syndrome, retinitis pigmentosa, Reye's syndrome,
seizure disorder, Sjogren's syndrome, suicide prevention, systemic lupus
erythematosus, tardive dyskinesia, tennis elbow, ulcerative colitis,
urolithiasis (bladder stones), vision enhancement, weight loss.
Dosing
The
below doses are based on scientific research, publications, traditional use, or
expert opinion. Many herbs and supplements have not been thoroughly tested, and
safety and effectiveness may not be proven. Brands may be made differently, with
variable ingredients, even within the same brand. The below doses may not apply
to all products. You should read product labels, and discuss doses with a
qualified healthcare provider before starting therapy.
Adults
(18 years and older):
Average
dietary intake of omega-3/omega-6 fatty acids: Average Americans consume
approximately 1.6 grams of omega-3 fatty acids each day, of which about 1.4
grams (~90%) comes from α-linolenic acid, and only 0.1-0.2 grams (~10%)
from EPA and DHA. In Western diets, people consume roughly 10 times more omega-6
fatty acids than omega-3 fatty acids. These large amounts of omega-6 fatty acids
come from the common use of vegetable oils containing linoleic acid (for
example: corn oil, evening primrose oil, pumpkin oil, safflower oil, sesame oil,
soybean oil, sunflower oil, walnut oil, wheatgerm oil). Because omega-6 and
omega-3 fatty acids compete with each other to be converted to active
metabolites in the body, benefits can be reached either by decreasing intake of
omega-6 fatty acids, or by increasing omega-3 fatty acids.
Recommended
daily intake of omega-3 fatty acids (healthy adults): For healthy adults with no
history of heart disease, the American Heart Association recommends eating fish
at least two times per week. In particular, fatty fish are recommended, such as
anchovies, bluefish, carp, catfish, halibut, herring, lake trout, mackerel,
pompano, salmon, striped sea bass, tuna (albacore), and whitefish. It is also
recommended to consume plant-derived sources of α-linolenic acid, such as
tofu/soybeans, walnuts, flaxseed oil, and canola oil. The World Health
Organization and governmental health agencies of several countries recommend
consuming 0.3-0.5 grams of daily EPA + DHA and 0.8-1.1 grams of daily α-linolenic
acid. A doctor and pharmacist should be consulted for dosing for other
conditions.
Children
(younger than 18 years):
Omega-3
fatty acids are used in some infant formulas, although effective doses are not
clearly established. Ingestion of fresh fish should be limited in young children
due to the presence of potentially harmful environmental contaminants. Fish oil
capsules should not be used in children except under the direction of a
physician.
Safety
The
U.S. Food and Drug Administration does not strictly regulate herbs and
supplements. There is no guarantee of strength, purity or safety of products,
and effects may vary. You should always read product labels. If you have a
medical condition, or are taking other drugs, herbs, or supplements, you should
speak with a qualified healthcare provider before starting a new therapy.
Consult a healthcare provider immediately if you experience side effects.
Allergies
People
with allergy or hypersensitivity to fish should avoid fish oil or omega-3 fatty
acid products derived from fish. Skin rash has been reported rarely. People with
allergy or hypersensitivity to nuts should avoid alpha linolenic acid or omega-3
fatty acid products that are derived from the types of nuts to which they react.
Side
Effects and Warnings
The
U.S. Food and Drug Administration classifies low intake of omega-3 fatty acids
from fish as GRAS (Generally Regarded as Safe). Caution may be warranted,
however, in diabetic patients due to potential (albeit unlikely) increases in
blood sugar levels, patients at risk of bleeding, or in those with high levels
of low-density lipoprotein (LDL). Fish meat may contain methylmercury and
caution is warranted in young children and pregnant/breastfeeding women.
Omega-3
fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding, although there is little evidence
of significant bleeding risk at lower doses. Very large intakes of fish
oil/omega-3 fatty acids ("Eskimo" amounts) may increase the risk of
hemorrhagic (bleeding) stroke. High doses have also been associated with
nosebleed and blood in the urine. Fish oils appear to decrease platelet
aggregation and prolong bleeding time, increase fibrinolysis (breaking down of
blood clots), and may reduce von Willebrand factor.
Potentially
harmful contaminants such as dioxins, methylmercury, and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) are found in some species of fish. Methylmercury accumulates in
fish meat more than in fish oil, and fish oil supplements appear to contain
almost no mercury. Therefore, safety concerns apply to eating fish but likely
not to ingesting fish oil supplements. Heavy metals are most harmful in young
children and pregnant/nursing women.
Gastrointestinal
upset is common with the use of fish oil supplements. Diarrhea may also occur,
with potentially severe diarrhea at very high doses. There are also reports of
increased burping, acid reflux/heartburn/indigestion, abdominal bloating, and
abdominal pain. Fishy aftertaste is a common effect. Gastrointestinal side
effects can be minimized if fish oils are taken with meals and if doses are
started low and gradually increased.
Multiple
human trials report small reductions in blood pressure with intake of omega-3
fatty acids. Reductions of 2-5 mmHg have been observed, and effects appear to be
dose-responsive (higher doses have greater effects). DHA may have greater
effects than EPA. Caution is warranted in patients with low blood pressure or in
those taking blood-pressure lowering medications.
Although
slight increases in fasting blood glucose levels have been noted in patients
with type 2 ("adult onset") diabetes, the available scientific
evidence suggests that there are no significant long-term effects of fish oil in
patients with diabetes, including no changes in hemoglobin A1c levels. Limited
reports in the 1980s of increased insulin needs in diabetic patients taking
long-term fish oils may be related to other dietary changes or weight gain.
Fish
oil taken for many months may cause a deficiency of vitamin E, and therefore
vitamin E is added to many commercial fish oil products. As a result, regular
use of vitamin E-enriched products may lead to elevated levels of this
fat-soluble vitamin. Fish liver oil contains the fat-soluble vitamins A and D,
and therefore fish liver oil products (such as cod liver oil) may increase the
risk of vitamin A or D toxicity.
Increases
(worsening) in low-density lipoprotein levels ("bad cholesterol") by
5-10% are observed with intake of omega-3 fatty acids. Effects are
dose-dependent.
Mild
elevations in liver function tests (alanine aminotransferase) have been reported
rarely.
Skin
rashes have been reported rarely.
There
are rare reports of mania in patients with bipolar disorder or major depression.
Restlessness and formication (the sensation of ants crawling on the skin) have
also been reported.
Pregnancy
and Breastfeeding
Potentially
harmful contaminants such as dioxins, methylmercury, and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) are found in some species of fish, and may be harmful in
pregnant/nursing women. Methylmercury accumulates in fish meat more than in fish
oil, and fish oil supplements appear to contain almost no mercury. Therefore,
these safety concerns apply to eating fish but likely not to ingesting fish oil
supplements. However, unrefined fish oil preparations may contain pesticides.
It
is not known if omega-3 fatty acid supplementation of women during pregnancy or
breastfeeding is beneficial to infants. It has been suggested that high intake
of omega-3 fatty acids during pregnancy, particularly DHA, may increase birth
weight and gestational length (254). However, higher doses may not be advisable
due to the potential risk of bleeding. Fatty acids are added to some infant
formulas.
Interaction
Most
herbs and supplements have not been thoroughly tested for interactions with
other herbs, supplements, drugs, or foods. The interactions listed below are
based on reports in scientific publications, laboratory experiments, or
traditional use. You should always read product labels. If you have a medical
condition, or are taking other drugs, herbs, or supplements, you should speak
with a qualified healthcare provider before starting a new therapy.
Interactions
with Drugs
In
theory, omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding when taken with
drugs that increase the risk of bleeding. Some examples include aspirin,
anticoagulants ("blood thinners") such as warfarin (Coumadin®) or
heparin, anti-platelet drugs such as clopidogrel (Plavix®), and non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen (Motrin®, Advil®) or naproxen (Naprosyn®,
Aleve®).
Based
on human studies, omega-3 fatty acids may lower blood pressure and add to the
effects of drugs that may also affect blood pressure.
Fish
oil supplements may lower blood sugar levels a small amount. Caution is advised
when using medications that may also lower blood sugar. Patients taking drugs
for diabetes by mouth or insulin should be monitored closely by a qualified
healthcare provider. Medication adjustments may be necessary.
Omega-3
fatty acids lower triglyceride levels, but can actually increase (worsen)
low-density lipoprotein (LDL/"bad cholesterol") levels by a small
amount. Therefore, omega-3 fatty acids may add to the triglyceride-lowering
effects of agents like niacin/nicotinic acid, fibrates such as gemfibrozil (Lopid®),
or resins such as cholestyramine (Questran®). However, omega-3 fatty acids may
work against the LDL-lowering properties of "statin" drugs like
atorvastatin (Lipitor®) and lovastatin (Mevacor®).
Interactions
with Herbs and Dietary Supplements
In
theory, omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding when taken with
herbs and supplements that are believed to increase the risk of bleeding.
Multiple cases of bleeding have been reported with the use of Ginkgo
biloba , and fewer cases with garlic and saw palmetto. Numerous other
agents may theoretically increase the risk of bleeding, although this has not
been proven in most cases.
Based
on human studies, omega-3 fatty acids may lower blood pressure, and
theoretically may add to the effects of agents that may also affect blood
pressure.
Fish
oil supplements may lower blood sugar levels a small amount. Caution is advised
when using herbs or supplements that may also lower blood sugar. Blood glucose
levels may require monitoring, and doses may need adjustment.
Omega-3
fatty acids lower triglyceride levels, but can actually increase (worsen)
low-density lipoprotein (LDL/"bad cholesterol") levels by a small
amount. Therefore, omega-3 fatty acids may add to the triglyceride-lowering
effects of agents like niacin/nicotinic acid, but may work against the potential
LDL-lowering properties of agents like barley, garlic, guggul, psyllium, soy, or
sweet almond.
Fish
oil taken for many months may cause a deficiency of vitamin E, and therefore
vitamin E is added to many commercial fish oil products. As a result, regular
use of vitamin E-enriched products may lead to elevated levels of this
fat-soluble vitamin. Fish liver oil contains the fat-soluble vitamins A and D,
and therefore fish liver oil products (such as cod liver oil) may increase the
risk of vitamin A or D toxicity. Since fat-soluble vitamins can build up in the
body and cause toxicity, patients taking multiple vitamins regularly or in high
doses should discuss this risk with their healthcare practitioners.
Methodology
This
information is based on a professional level monograph edited and peer-reviewed
by contributors to the Natural Standard Research Collaboration (www.naturalstandard.com):
Serguei Axentsev, MD, PhD, D.Sci. (Natural Standard Research Collaboration);
Rawan Barakat, PharmD (Massachusetts College of Pharmacy); Ethan Basch, MD
(Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center); Steve Bent, MD (University of
California San Francisco); Cynthia Dacey, PharmD (Natural Standard Research
Collaboration); Cathi Dennehey, PharmD (University of California San Francisco);
Paul Hammerness, MD (Harvard Medical School); Paul Knaus, PharmD (Northeastern
University); Mojisola Sekoni, PharmD (Massachusetts College of Pharmacy);
Elizabeth Sheehan, PharmD (Northeastern University); Michael Smith, MScPharm, ND
(Canadian College of Naturopathic Medicine); Philippe Szapary, MD (University of
Pennsylvania); Catherine Ulbricht, PharmD (Massachusetts General Hospital);
Wendy Weissner, BA (Natural Standard Research Collaboration).
Selected references
1.
Berbert AA, Kondo CR, Almendra CL, et al. Supplementation of fish oil and
olive oil in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Nutrition 2005;21(2):131-136.
2.
Bittiner SB, Tucker WF, Cartwright I, et al. A double-blind, randomised,
placebo-controlled trial of fish oil in psoriasis. Lancet
2-20-1988;1(8582):378-380.
3.
Bjorneboe A, Smith AK, Bjorneboe GE, et al. Effect of dietary
supplementation with n-3 fatty acids on clinical manifestations of psoriasis. Br
J Dermatol 1988;118(1):77-83.
4.
Brouwer IA, Zock PL, Camm AJ, et al. Effect of fish oil on ventricular
tachyarrhythmia and death in patients with implantable cardioverter
defibrillators: the Study on Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Ventricular Arrhythmia
(SOFA) randomized trial. JAMA. 2006 Jun 14;295(22):2613-9.
5.
Burns CP, Halabi S, Clamon G, et al. Phase II study of high-dose fish oil
capsules for patients with cancer-related cachexia. Cancer
7-15-2004;101(2):370-378.
6.
Chan JK, McDonald BE, Gerrard JM, et al. Effect of dietary alpha-linolenic
acid and its ratio to linoleic acid on platelet and plasma fatty acids and
thrombogenesis. Lipids 1993;28(9):811-817.
7.
Dry J, Vincent D. Effect of a fish oil diet on asthma: results of a
1-year double-blind study. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol. 1991;95(2-3):156-157.
8.
Duffy EM, Meenagh GK, McMillan SA, et al. The clinical effect of dietary
supplementation with omega-3 fish oils and/or copper in systemic lupus
erythematosus. J Rheumatol. 2004;31(8):1551-1556.
9.
Erkkila AT, Lichtenstein AH, Mozaffarian D, et al. Fish intake is
associated with a reduced progression of coronary artery atherosclerosis in
postmenopausal women with coronary artery disease. Am J Clin Nutr.
2004;80(3):626-632.
10.
Fenton WS, Dickerson F, Boronow J, et al. A placebo-controlled trial of
omega-3 Fatty Acid (ethyl eicosapentaenoic Acid) supplementation for residual
symptoms and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry
2001;158(12):2071-2074.
11.
Lim WS, Gammack JK, Van Niekerk J, et al. Omega 3 fatty acid for the
prevention of dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006 Jan 25;(1):CD005379.
12.
Mostad IL, Bjerve KS, Bjorgaas MR, et al. Effects of n-3 fatty acids in
subjects with type 2 diabetes: reduction of insulin sensitivity and
time-dependent alteration from carbohydrate to fat oxidation. Am J Clin Nutr.
2006 Sep;84(3):540-50.
13.
Olsen SF, Secher NJ, Tabor A, et al. Randomised clinical trials of fish
oil supplementation in high risk pregnancies. Fish Oil Trials In Pregnancy (FOTIP)
Team. BJOG. 2000;107(3):382-395.
14.
Stoll AL, Severus WE, Freeman MP, et al. Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar
disorder: a preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch
Gen.Psychiatry 1999;56(5):407-412.
15.
Su KP, Huang SY, Chiu CC, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive
disorder. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
Eur.Neuropsychopharmacol. 2003;13(4):267-271.
November
01, 2006.
Serving Size: |
2 capsules |
Servings per container: |
60 |
Calories |
20 |
Calories from fat |
20 |
Total fat |
2.2g |
Saturated Fat |
0g |
Fish Oil Concentrate |
1000 mg |
Organic Mineral Catalyst |
100 mcg |
Calcium, Chloride, Cobalt, Chromium, Magnesium,
Boron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Selenium, Iron, Copper, Phosphorus,
Sulfur, Potassium, Iodine and Zinc |
|
*
Percent Daily Values based on a 2,000 calorie diet
**
No daily value established
|
|
Directions: Take 2 capsules daily. |
|
|
|